ECO203 Final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

ECO203 Final - Essay Example These would affect the other economic variables which include Aggregate demand, Gross Domestic Product and Employment of a country. The Government would go for an Expansionary Fiscal policy in times of recession in which U.S. Government would spend more than they would collect taxes from the people. That is government spending would exceed taxes. The opposite would happen in case of a Contractionary Fiscal Policy where the government would increase the taxes more than it intends to spend. Now government spending may account for a variety of activities which include roads, education, healthcare, welfare activities and defense. This government spending is financed chiefly by taxation (Blanchard, 2010). There are other alternative ways of funding like printing money, external borrowings from foreign countries etc. The government may also borrow from the public which is called public debt. But this would be done by the government only when on the occasion of a deficit in the government b udget. The U.S. Government utilizes the Fiscal policy in the endeavor to affect the aggregate demand along with full employment. When there is inadequate aggregate demand in the economy, the government would decrease the rate of taxation and increase the expenditures by making use of idle resources. This would lead to increase in the growth rate of the economy and would tend towards full employment by decreasing the rate of unemployment. As a result the output would increase. This kind of government spending has a multiplier effect because when a government starts a new project, along with the output of the project it generates employment for the workers and hence the consumption and savings. However Fiscal Policy might also be constrained by a crowding out effect which would happen if there is a rise in interest rates which would curb investment. However, if the economy is going through a recession then already a lot of resources are unused and hence this would not pose a problem f or the economy explicitly (Froyen, 2005). Monetary Policy The monetary policy is implemented by the Central Bank with a control on the money supply with is undertaken with the help of several methods. This can be controlled mainly by purchase or sell of bonds which increases or decreases the supply of the money in the economy. Now bonds are debt instruments that guarantee the buyer the return of the principal along with an interest or the coupon at some specified date. This rate of interest or the coupon rate is determined by the Central Bank and one of the tools by which the Central Bank controls the supply of money in the economy (Mankiw, 2012). Now, when the bank wants to reduce the money supply of the economy or decrease the liquidity, it would go for a Contractionary Monetary policy wherein it would start increasing the interest rates. As a result, the coupon rates of the bonds would increase which would compel people to park their money with the banks, having less money in the ir hands. This would lead to a reduction in liquidity in the entire economic system. In contrary to this by an Expansionary Monetary policy, the Federal Reserve Bank would decrease th

Power In Physics Essay Example for Free

Power In Physics Essay Power is an important quantity used to describe the rate of doing work or the rate of the transformation of one form of energy into another. In other words, it is the ratio of the work done and the time required to do that work; thus, it is the rate at which a machine accomplishes a given amount of work. Two common units of power are horsepower (550 foot-pound per second), for mechanical devices; and the watt (.737 foot-pounds per second), for electrical devices. Since there are a number of topics under the category of power, let’s focus on one of its units which is the horsepower.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A horsepower is a unit of power. One horsepower (abbreviation, HP or hp) equals 550 foot-pounds as mentioned earlier is the amount of work done by one pound of force exerted through a distance of one foot). The metric unit is the watt; one horsepower equals 745.7 watts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Originally, horsepower mean the ability of a horse to perform heavy tasks such as turning a mill wheel or drawing a load. James Watt (1736-1819), inventor of the first efficient steam engine, chose horsepower as a standard to which the power of an engine could be meaningfully compared. Watt’s measurements of horsepower were widely accepted, even though the measurements applied only to very strong horses working for brief periods. Although the horse is no longer an important source of power, Watt’s standard is retained for rating engines, turbines, electric motors, windmills, and waterpower devices.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Indicated horsepower is the power an engine would develop if it worked without frictional losses. Brake, or shaft, horsepower (also called delivered horsepower) is the actual power output of an engine Mechanical efficiency of an engine is the ratio between brake horsepower and indicated horsepower, and friction horsepower is the difference between indicated horsepower and brake horsepower.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Water horsepower is a measure of water power. The falling of 33,000 pounds (14, 969 kg) of water over a distance of one foot (30 cm) in one minute produces one horsepower). Thrust horsepower is a measure of the power of a jet or rocket engine. It is also a measure of the rotational power that an engine-driven propeller converts into thrust. (Thrust is the forward force of propulsion). Taxable horsepower is calculated by state and local governments for the purpose of assessing taxes on automobiles and other machines. Taxable horsepower, usually based on a formula using the diameter and number of cylinders, is usually much lower than brake horsepower. An average man while running can develop about one horsepower for a brief period and about one-seventh horsepower for sustained periods. Small motors in household appliances are rated at about one-third to three-fourths horsepower. Reference: Sikorsky, Bob (1997). Horsepower Measured 2 Ways. The Washington Times.

Factors That Influence Household And Individual Food Consumption Economics Essay

Factors That Influence Household And Individual Food Consumption Economics Essay This paper identifies the factors that influence the household and individual food consumption. Since food is the most important item of the consumption basket, an analysis of the changes in food consumption pattern over time has a special significance which is the most important component for low and middle income groups. Food expenditure pattern is an excellent indicator of economic well being of people. Economic Development is not only brings about significant changes in the socio-economic and cultural life of a habitant population but it also influences the levels of living in the long run. India, a rapid developing and agrarian dominant economy has been bringing many changes in the socio economic life of her population since independence. Keyword -Expenditure, Consumption Patterns, Food Consumption and Household Consumer Expenditure, Factors affecting food consumption pattern. Introduction: The analysis of changing food consumption pattern over time would help in designing appropriate policies related to food production and distribution .Increasing number of working women, rise in per capita income, changing lifestyles and increasing level of affluence in the middle income group have also brought about changes in food habits. Rapid urbanization and sociological changes like the desire on the part of the housewives to spend less time in kitchen, the increased value for leisure, weakening of family ties, increased impact of television and its advertisement as well as changing life styles of the families, have brought about the changes in food consumption pattern. Since food is the most important item of the consumption basket, an analysis of the changes in food consumption pattern over time has a special significance which is the most important component for low and middle income groups. Food expenditure pattern is an excellent indicator of economic well being of people. If the society is wealthy proportionately high expenditure will be made on secondary necessities, comfort, luxury products and conspicuous consumption. On the other, if the society is at subsistence level, people will spend proportionately more on food. Engels law also states that the poorer the family, the greater is the proportion of its total income devoted to provision of food. Economic Development is not only brings about significant changes in the socio-economic and cultural life of a habitant population but it also influences the levels of living in the long run. India, a rapid developing and agrarian dominant economy has been bringing many changes in the socio economic life of her population since independence. Due to variations in natural resources endowments; physical and climatic conditions; economic factors like income, prices and the extent of magnetization; demographic factors like household size and degree of urbanization and cultural factors are likely to influence consumption expenditure pattern. Such diverse socio-economic, demographic and cultural factors are reflected in the inequality in the distribution of consumption expenditure as it is revealed by the national sample survey organization data on consumption expenditure in India. Food consumption has been a subject of research all over the world. It is especially meaningful in developing countries where food expenditure accounts for a relatively large share of household income. Studies on food consumption shed light on food related nutritional policies. They provide estimates of how food consumption is affected by change in prices, income and taxation policies ( Dune and Edkins 2005) The studies on food consumption pattern or expenditure pattern are very important as it is related to poverty and standard of our society. Food being the foremost basic need gets the priority in the expenditure of people, especially the poor classes. It is necessary to study the change in food consumption pattern under the changing situation of liberalization, privatization and globalization. After liberalization began in 1991, though much attention has been paid to the reduction in head count ratio, less priority have been accorded to the magnitude and pattern of food consumption. Ray and Lancaster (2005) have recently shown that the link had weakened to the extent that the official poverty line in India today is quite out of step with that based on the household minimum calorie requirements. This necessitates an analysis on the magnitude and trend in food consumption, especially cereals, over the reform period in India, in view of their strong implications for food and nutrition securities. This study provides evidence on the magnitude and patterns in food consumption status of both rural and urban population. There is a strong indication that improvement in the levels of living might not have been distributed well and certain pockets of the states might have remained impoverished in spite of their overall growth. While studies abound on the consumption expenditure among rural and urban households for various expenditure classes at macro level, very few studies have been done at micro level to explain the rural urban differences in the consumption pattern. Per capita income and food consumption both are the indicators of human development but food consumption is a better indicator of human welfare. Indias faster economic growth over 1990s has raised per capita income (expenditure) and has significantly impacted its food consumption patterns by causing a change in the structure of food consumption patterns observed earlier during pre-reforms period. This raises the relevance of looking at the composition of Indias food consumption basket. Changes in the composition of food consumption expenditure during the 1990s, including the shift from cereals to non-cereal items against the background of a decline in food expenditure share, occurred right across the growth spectrum and raise the issue of the nutritional implications of food items particularly during post-reforms period. Purpose: The purpose of this study of the literature was to determine which factors influence household and individual food consumption. Literature Review: Numerous studies have been made in recent years on the trends of poverty, inequality and level of living in Indian states during the 1990s. Some have highlighted the reduction in poverty (Sundaram and Tendulkar 2003; Bhanumurthy and Mitra 2004), while some others have expressed anguish over the rising economic inequality (Deaton and Dreze, 2002; Sen and Himanshu, 2004; Krishna, 2004).There is a common feeling that although there has been some overall improvement in the average levels of living of people across the majority of states, those who were already on a better footing could reap the advantages of the economic reforms in the 90à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s and experience faster growth, while there was no tangible improvement for the poorest few. Again, the rural -urban expenditure gap, believed to have widened overtime, needs meticulous scrutiny. Campbell (1960) conducted a survey and had given a comparison between older persons and younger persons at identical income level. Younger people, at all income level, spend more on clothing, furniture and miscellaneous items than older people but less on medical care. David (1962) studies revealed that the size of the family and frequency of purchasing durables, kinds of durable purchased and the substitution of durables for commercial services hampers the consumption pattern of households. Chatterjee (1962) on the basis on NSS consumption expenditure data for rural and urban areas and six zones has been estimated for elasticities on expenditures on food. Gupta(1968) has compared the differences in overall consumption patterns in the state of UP and Tamil Nadu for the reason of their known and distinct economic , social and cultural differences .The study has concluded that there exist significant differences in consumer expenditure on various categories of item in those states in general as well as also between rural and urban regions in each of two states. Kwang (1972) had analyzed the effect of income as well as other economic and social demographic characteristics on households consumption expenditure significantly among different groups. Chatterjee Bhattacharya(1972) have constructed indices of consumer price differential between the rural areas of different states of India with NSS 18th round data. Rao(1977), in her study has tried to identify some measures at development in order to identify backward regions and subsequently to examine the trends in inter regional and inter sectoral disparities in India. The study by Sarkar(1983) based on NSS consumer expenditure data for 13,16,21 28 rounds supports the hypothesis that level of living and expenditure pattern differs over the states. Kumar and Aggarwal (2004) determined the extent of poverty in Delhi slums through consumption patterns, employment and educational status of the slum population. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FOOD CONSUMPTION: Income: Income is an important means of widening the range of consumption options, especially as economies around the world become increasingly monetized. Income gives people the ability to buy diverse, nutritious foods instead of eating only their own crops, to pay for motorized transport instead of walking, to pay for health care and education for their families, to pay for water from a tap instead of walking for many hours to collect it from a well. The increasing dependence of much consumption on private income means that changes in income have a dominant influence on changes · in consumption. When incomes rise steadily consumption rises for most of the population. But for the same reason, when incomes decline, consumption also falls sharply, with devastating consequences for human well being. Demographic Characteristics: The demographic characteristics have an important bearing on the level of income, consumption expenditure and saving of the society. Features like rate of growth of population, educational level of the head of the household and other members, the age of the members of the household, the size of the family are some of the factors which have a direct effect on the saving of the community, especially in the rural areas. According to Leff (1969) this factor as a determinant of saving had been left out because, this hypothesis had not been validated by extensive empirical testing Level of Education: The level of education of the head of the household and that of other members of the family determines the nature of occupation they are involved in, the level of income that they get and the motivations for saving. Also the level of education of the female members of the community is likely to have a positive influence on the saving rate Size and Pattern of Assets: For any economic unit wealth reflects the net result of accumulated saving, revaluation of assgets and capital transfers ever since the unit came into existence. The size and pattern of assets held by the households determine the income enjoyed by the household as also the amount of income saved and the pattern of investment of saving. Time use: Opportunities to consume can be severely limited by lack of time. Women, spend many hours a day meeting the households needs and have no time left for education, better health care or community activities. Similarly, overworked labourers may receive an adequate wage. but they often work long hours and are denied the opportunity of regular leave. Information: Information is the key to raising awareness of the range of consumption options available and enabling the consumer to decide which choices are best. Without information. there is no way of knowing what goods and services are available in the market. and what services are being provided by the state and are. By right, available to all. Advertising and public information campaigns play an important role in this respect. Social barriers: Income cannot always remove barriers to access to opportunities. This is particularly so when considerations of gender, class or ethnicity limit peoples freedom to consume the goods and services they want. For example, people belonging to certain ethnic groups might be denied equal access to education, employment and other basic social services by the state, regardless of how much they earn. The household- decision-making and upbringing: Much analysis of consumer decision-making assumes that the person making the decision is the one who will directly benefit from the consumption. This is far from the truth in many cases. A great deal of household consumption decision making is in the hands of one person-often the mother or the father of the family. Although this may lead to good outcomes, it can also be a source of inequity within the family- Household values has a wider effect on the consumption options of individual members. The education and upbringing given to children early in life play a critical part in establishing their ability to make good use of the options available for living a full and fulfilling life. The remarkable expansion and diversification in consumption options have made it more difficult for consumers to make informed choices. Globalization and Consumption: As a result of increased purchasing power and opportunity to purchase, a change was manifest in the activity of consumption. The definition of what constitutes a necessity is changing, and the distinctions between luxuries and necessities are blurring. Globalization is integrating not just trade, investment and financial markets; it is also integrating consumer markets around the world and opening opportunities. This has two effects i.e. economic and social. Economic integration has accelerated the opening of consumer markets with a constant flow of new products. There is fierce competition to sell to consumers worldwide, with increasingly aggressive advertising. On the social side local and national boundaries are breaking down in the setting of social standards and aspirations in consumption. Technological Advancement: Another important factor that has changed the rural consumption pattern in recent years is the technological advancement in agriculture which has in turn raised the income of the rural population. The increased income is likely to be used for consuming more of the items which are already in their commodity basket. This may increase their choices of falling on goods with sensory appeal such as sweets, tobacco, drugs and intoxicants and also those goods and services associated with prestige and status. Summary and Conclusion: This study shows that food plays a central part in the culture, traditions . Important events such as weddings, funerals, and religious celebrations are all accompanied by food specifically prepared for the occasion. Consumption of traditional food is largely associated with poverty and consequently, as people move to the city, they change their diet to a typical westernised diet with a high fat content and low carbohydrate intake (Bourne et al., 1996). Our study found that this population associated meat with high socio-economic standing and therefore tried to consume it on daily basis. Our findings are confirmed by those of Wong et al. (1984) who examined a relationship between household income, level and expense and consumption of food in urban marginal areas of Mexico. The authors found a marked tendency to increase consumption of high protein foods as family income increased. It emphasizes the critical importance of taking these factors into consideration in developing strategie s for modifying eating practices.

Wyatt Earp :: essays research papers

Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp Wyatt Earp was born on March 19, 1848. He is the son of Nicholas Earp, a lawyer/farmer and Virginia Earp and was born at 406 South Third Street, Monmouth, Illinois. Wyatt was given the name of his father's Army captain. When Wyatt was quiet young, his two older brother, James and Virgil, went off to fight in the Civil War for the Union. A story is told in which Wyatt tried to run away and join the Army, but his father caught him in a corn field and took him back to the house. As a young man Earp was a stagecoach driver, railroad construction worker, surveyor, buffalo hunter, and lawman. In his early adulthood, Wyatt married and his wife died shortly after of Typhoid fever. Wyatt was devastated and went off and got into some trouble for horse stealing. Later, he became a stagecoach driver and traveled to Los Angeles, Ca and Prescott, Arizona. Wyatt also hunted buffalo for so me time. There are rumors that it was during this tiem that Wyatt met Bat Masterson. In 1876 he became chief deputy marshal of Dodge City, Kansas, a lawless frontier town. Within a year, having brought relative peace to Dodge City, he moved on to Deadwood in the Dakota Territoy. In the fall of 1879, Wyatt and his brothers Morgan and Virgil journeyed by horseback down to Tombstone, Arizona. There he furthered his reputation as a gunfighter, first as deputy sheriff of Pima Co. and later as deputy U.S. marshal for the entire Arizona Territory. Earp and three of his brothers, together with the American frontiersman Doc Holliday, participated in the famous O.K. Corral gunfighter in 1881, during which they killed several suspected cattle rustlers. The following year, Ike Clanton attempted to kill Wyatt and Morgan while they were playing pool; Morgan was killed.

Aids Awareness – 1

AIDS is a silent killer. The main reason for AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is HIV (Human Immuno Defiency virus). This virus when it enters our body, immediately turns into RNA, and then spreads quickly. After that it starts to destroy the white blood corpuscles. Because of this our resistance towards diseases gets decreased. Now the human body cannot withstand even an ordinary cold. In the year 1996 according to the survey, about 5000 persons per day were affected by AIDS in the whole world. The final stage of HIV is known as AIDS.In 1996, it was discovered that the virus can be controlled to a certain extent. The survey in 2002, says that about 3. 97 million of people are suffering from this disease in India. Origin of AIDS At first, this virus was found in green monkeys of Africa. At that time it was known as ‘Siman Immuno Deficiency Syndrome'. Africans ate the monkeys flesh as their food. In 1981, it was found that, the virus has spread among the Africans. In th e year 1987, it was discovered as AIDS. Mode of Transmission of HIV VirusFollowing are the ways in which HIV virus can be transmitted 1. Unprotected hetero or homosexual contact 2. Injection which is used without sterlising after using for HIV/SIDS affected person. 3. Blood of HIV affected person used for another person 4. From the pregnant lay who is affected of AIDS to the child or when she breast feeds child. Ways in which HIV/AIDS cannot be spread AIDS cannot spread by shaking hands, eating together, using the dress of the affected person, through mosquito, air, water. Symptoms 1. Loss of 10% or more of body weight . Fever of unknown origin 3. Preumonia, brain tumours, haemorrhage, unremitting diarrhea, swelling of lymph glands. Role of youth in HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention Today's youth is going to build tomorrow's future. They build the nation and they together build the world. Each one has his/her own responsibility in building a healthy world. Because of the scientific invention many diseases are eradicated many can be cured but still there are certain exceptions like HIV/AIDS virus which threatens the whole world.At first, youth must realize the present problem created by HIV virus and their self control is going to be the main solution to the problem. The main reason to say that the solution of this problem is in the hands of youth is that they have more understanding power and they have more ability. So they can understand the seriousness of AIDS and they can take effective steps to being about the awareness and prevent the deadly disease. Following are some of the steps which may help in eradicating HIV/AIDS virus: 1) Self controlTeenagers should understand their problems clearly. They should have a clear idea about the change in harmones during this stage. They should have self control and they should be motivated to concentrate on good aspects of life. They should have awareness about the preventive measures of HIV/AIDS virus 2) DRAMA Studen ts of the college must be encouraged by their teachers and they should be taken to the rural areas, schools other educational institutions, offices etc. to conduct street plays bring about the awareness among the people and he people should be taught clearly the preventive methods, symptoms, methods of testing the HIV virus and also the facilities provided by the government to the HIV affected. People must be given awareness in their vernacular language and they must be motivated to extend their support to the HIV virus affected person. 3) Conducting completion and exhibition Youth should take the responsibility in conducting various types of competition and exhibitions in various schools, colleges regarding the awareness and prevention of HIV/AIDS. ) Extending their support to the HIV affected person Youth have to discharge their responsibility of meeting the HIV affected people and giving them self-confidence and also encourage them to engage in some activities in which they are i nterested. 5) Creating awareness in the family Teenagers create awareness about HIV in their family, because when the family realizes the importance of eradication of HIV virus, then the society will realize and then the nation will realize and finally all together the world will realize the importance of eradicating this virus.People of the whole world will be aware and take preventive measures. Conclusion HIV affected people can live to the maximum of 10 to 15 years. This period can be extended if they live happily. Only way to make them happy is to touch and talk to them. Youth are the main solution for creating awareness and preventing HIV/AIDS virus. Colleges and the institutions should make them understand their responsibility and start taking steps they can obliterate the words â€Å"AIDS/HIV virus† from the whole world.

Biography of Fannie Lou Hamer, Civil Rights Leader

Biography of Fannie Lou Hamer, Civil Rights Leader Known for her civil rights activism, Fannie Lou Hamer was called the spirit of the civil rights movement. Born a sharecropper, she worked from the age of six as a timekeeper on a cotton plantation. Later, she became involved in the Black Freedom Struggle and eventually moved on to become a field secretary for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).   Dates:  October 6, 1917 - March 14, 1977Also known as:  Fannie Lou Townsend Hamer About Fannie Lou Hamer Fannie Lou Hamer, born in Mississippi, was working in the fields when she was six and was only educated through the sixth grade. She married in 1942 and adopted two children. She went to work on the plantation where her husband drove a tractor, first as a field worker and then as the plantations timekeeper. She also attended meetings of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, where speakers addressed self-help, civil rights, and voting rights. Field Secretary With the SNCC In 1962, Fannie Lou Hamer volunteered to work with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) registering black voters in the South. She and the rest of her family lost their jobs for her involvement, and SNCC hired her as a field secretary. She was able to register to vote for the first time in her life in 1963 and then taught others what theyd need to know to pass the then-required literacy test. In her organizing work, she often led the activists in singing Christian hymns about freedom: This Little Light of Mine and others. She helped organize the 1964 Freedom Summer in Mississippi, a campaign sponsored by SNCC, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and the NAACP. In 1963, after being charged with disorderly conduct for refusing to go along with a restaurants whites only policy, Hamer was beaten so badly in jail, and refused medical treatment, that she was permanently disabled. Founding Member and VP of the MFDP Because African Americans were excluded from the Mississippi Democratic Party, the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was formed, with Fannie Lou Hamer as a founding member and vice president. The MFDP sent an alternate delegation to the 1964 Democratic National Convention, with 64 black and 4 white delegates. Fannie Lou Hamer testified to the conventions Credentials Committee about violence and discrimination faced by black voters trying to register to vote, and her testimony was televised nationally. The MFDP refused a compromise offered to seat two of their delegates and returned to further political organizing in Mississippi, and in 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act. Delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1972 From 1968 to 1971, Fannie Lou Hamer was a member of the Democratic National Committee for Mississippi. Her 1970 lawsuit, Hamer v. Sunflower County, demanded school desegregation. She ran unsuccessfully for the Mississippi state Senate in 1971, and successfully for delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1972. Other Accomplishments She also lectured extensively, and was known for a signature line she often used, Im sick and tired of being sick and tired. She was known as a powerful speaker, and her singing voice lent another power to civil rights meetings. Fannie Lou Hamer brought a Head Start program to her local community, to form a local Pig Bank cooperative (1968) with the help of the National Council of Negro Women, and later to found the Freedom Farm Cooperative (1969). She helped found the National Womens Political Caucus in 1971, speaking for the inclusion of racial issues in the feminist agenda. In 1972 the Mississippi House of Representatives passed a resolution honoring her national and state activism, passing 116 to 0. Suffering from breast cancer, diabetes, and heart problems, Fannie Lou Hamer died in Mississippi in 1977. She had published To Praise Our Bridges: An Autobiography in 1967. June Jordan published a biography of Fannie Lou Hamer in 1972, and Kay Mills published This Little Light of Mine: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer in 1993. Background, Family Father: Jim TownsendMother: Ella Townsendyoungest of 20 childrenborn in Montgomery County, Mississippi; family moved when she was two to Sunflower County, Mississippi Education Hamer attended the segregated school system in Mississippi, with a short school year to accommodate fieldwork as a child of a sharecropping family. She dropped out by 6th grade.   Marriage, Children Husband: Perry Pap Hamer (married 1942; tractor driver)Children (adopted): Dorothy Jean, Vergie Ree Religion Baptist Organizations Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), National Council of Negro Women (NCNW), Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), National Womens Political Caucus (NWPC), others

The Meaning of Form Follows Function

The Meaning of 'Form Follows Function' Form follows function is an architectural phrase often heard, not well understood, and hotly discussed by students and designers for over a century. Who gave us the most famous phrase in architecture, and how did Frank Lloyd Wright expand its meaning? Key Takeaways The phrase form follows function was coined by architect Louis H. Sullivan in his 1896 essay The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered.The statement refers to the idea that a skyscrapers exterior design should reflect the different interior functions.The Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Missouri, and the Prudential Building in Buffalo, New York, are two examples of skyscrapers whose form follows their functions. Architect Louis Sullivan Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) helped pioneer the American skyscraper mainly in the Midwest, creating a Sullivanesque style that changed the face of architecture. Sullivan, one of the great figures in American architecture, influenced the language of the style of architecture that characterized what became known as the Chicago School. Often called Americas first truly modern architect, Sullivan argued that a tall buildings exterior design (form) should reflect the activities (functions) that take place inside its walls, represented by mechanical equipment, retail stores, and offices. His  1891 Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Missouri, is an iconic showcase for Sullivans philosophy and design principles. Observe the terra cotta facade of this early steel frame tall building: The lower floors require a different natural lighting window configuration than the central seven floors of interior office space and the top attic area. The Wainwrights three-part architectural form is similar to partners Adler and Sullivans taller 1896 Prudential Guaranty Building in Buffalo, New York, a similar form because these structures had similar functions. Prudential Guaranty in Buffalo, New York. Dacoslett/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 The Rise of Skyscrapers The skyscraper was new in the 1890s. More dependable steel being made by the Bessemer process could be used for posts and beams. The strength of a steel framework allowed buildings to be taller without needing thick walls and flying buttresses. This framework was revolutionary, and Chicago School architects knew the world had changed. The U.S. after the Civil War had changed from rural to urban-centered, and steel became the building blocks of a new America. Tall buildings major use- office work, a byproduct of the Industrial Revolution- was a new function in need of a new urban architecture. Sullivan understood both the magnitude of this historical change in architecture and the possibility that beauty may be left behind in the rush to be the tallest and the newest. The design of the tall office building takes its place with all other architectural types made when architecture, as has happened once in many years, was a living art. Sullivan wanted to build beautiful buildings, like Greek temples and Gothic cathedrals. He set out to define principles of design in his 1896 essay, The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered, published the same year as the Prudential Guaranty Building rose tall in Buffalo. Sullivans legacy- besides instilling ideas in his young apprentice, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959)- was to document a design philosophy for multi-use buildings. Sullivan put his beliefs into words, ideas that continue to be discussed and debated today. Prudential Building, 1896, Buffalo, New York. Dacoslett/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 Form All things in nature have a shape, Sullivan said, that is to say, a form, an outward semblance, that tells us what they are, that distinguishes them from ourselves and from each other. That these shapes express the inner life of the thing is a law of nature, which should be followed in any organic architecture. Sullivan suggests that the exterior shell of the skyscraper should change in appearance to reflect interior functions. If this new organic architectural form was to be part of natural beauty, the buildings facade should change as each interior function changes. Function Common interior areas by function included mechanical utility rooms below grade, commercial areas in the lower floors, mid-story offices, and a top attic area generally used for storage and ventilation. Sullivans description of office space may have been organic and natural at first, but decades later many people mocked and ultimately rejected what they thought was Sullivans dehumanization, which he also expressed in The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered: an indefinite number of stories of offices piled tier upon tier, one tier just like another tier, one office just like all the other offices, an office being similar to a cell in a honey-comb, merely a compartment, nothing more The birth of the office was a profound event in American history, a milestone that affects us even today. Its not surprising, then, that Sullivans 1896 phrase form follows function has echoed through the ages, sometimes as an explanation, often as a solution, but always as a design idea expounded by one architect in the 19th century. Form and Function Are One Sullivan was a mentor to Wright, his young draftsman, who never forgot Sullivans lessons. As he did with Sullivans designs, Wright took the words of his lieber meister (dear master) and made them his own: Form and function are one. He came to believe that people were misusing Sullivans idea, reducing it to a dogmatic slogan and an excuse for foolish stylistic constructions. Sullivan used the phrase as a starting point, according to Wright. Beginning from within outward, the concept that Sullivans function within should describe the outward appearance, Wright asks, The ground already has form. Why not begin to give at once by accepting that? Why not give by accepting the gifts of nature? So what are the factors to consider in designing the exterior? Wrights answer is dogma for organic architecture; the climate, soil, building materials, type of labor used (machine-made or hand-crafted), the living human spirit that makes a building architecture. Wright never rejects Sullivans idea; he suggests that Sullivan didnt go far enough intellectually and spiritually. Less is only more where more is no good, Wright wrote. Form follows function is mere dogma until you realize the higher truth that form and function are one. Sources Gutheim, Frederick, editor. Frank Lloyd Wright on Architecture: Selected Writings (1894-1940). Grossets Universal Library, 1941.Sullivan, Louis H. The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. Lippincotts Magazine, March 1896.Wright, Frank Lloyd. The Future of Architecture. New American Library, Horizon Press, 1953.